Lead-Acid and Lead-Carbon Battery Electrochemistry, Materials, and Recycling
This community focuses on the electrochemical performance, material composition, and end-of-life processing of lead-acid and lead-carbon batteries. The work addresses how to improve battery longevity and capacity through electrode modifications, while also developing methods to recover lead and other materials from spent cells.
The research centers on the chemistry of lead paste, lead oxide, and sulfuric acid electrolytes, with a significant portion dedicated to the integration of carbon additives. Recurring themes include the development of activated carbon and graphene oxide composites for negative electrodes, the study of antimony and tin alloys in positive plates, and the optimization of gel polymer electrolytes. A substantial strand of the work involves hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes for extracting lead from spent batteries, alongside investigations into hydrogen evolution and electrolyte stratification. These efforts aim to enhance the durability and efficiency of stationary energy storage systems and to establish more sustainable recycling pathways for the industry.
The community is most heavily concentrated in lead research, accounting for 80% of all tracked lead studies and comprising 1,719 papers. It also represents a significant share of sulfur research, with 416 papers, and antimony research, with 185 papers.
This body of work consists of 4,013 papers, primarily published in the Journal of Power Sources, the Journal of The Electrochemical Society, and Electrochimica Acta.
Recent publications continue to explore gel polymer electrolytes, the structural role of antimony ions, and advanced carbon composites for anodes. Newer studies also examine closed-loop extraction of metals from e-waste and the environmental impact of battery production and recycling.